Life of Basil II

 Basil II Porphyrogenitus, known as "the Bulgar Slayer," was the senior Byzantine emperor from 976 to 1025. Born in 958, Basil and his brother Constantine VIII were crowned before their father's death in 963. However, due to their young age, the throne initially passed to generals Nikephoros Phokas and John Tzimiskes until Basil assumed full authority after his great-uncle Basil Lekapenos served as de facto ruler until 985. Basil's nearly 50-year reign was the longest of any Roman emperor.

In the initial years of his rule, Basil dealt with civil wars against powerful generals Bardas Skleros and Bardas Phokas, which concluded with Phokas' death and Skleros' surrender by 989. Post these conflicts, Basil focused on stabilizing and expanding the empire's eastern territories, overpowering the First Bulgarian Empire after prolonged hostilities. Although a truce was made with the Fatimid Caliphate in 987-988, Basil launched another campaign against them, concluding with a new truce in 1000. He also waged war against the Khazar Khaganate, gaining Byzantine control over part of Crimea and leading successful campaigns against Georgia.

Despite continuous warfare, Basil was noted for being an effective ruler, curtailing the power of influential land-owning families, amassing wealth in the treasury, and marking the empire's largest territorial reach in over four centuries. Although his successors lacked competence, the empire prospered for decades after his death. A key decision during his reign was marrying his sister Anna Porphyrogenita to Vladimir I of Kiev for military support, which led to the formation of the Varangian Guard and the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. This move linked later Rus' successor states with Byzantine cultural and religious traditions. Basil is celebrated as a Greek national hero but is reviled by Bulgarians.

Physical Appearance and Personality

The historian Michael Psellos portrayed Basil as a stocky man with light-blue eyes, strongly arched eyebrows, and thick side whiskers he would twirl when deep in thought or angry. He was of shorter-than-average height but commanding on horseback and wore simple dark-purple robes with minimal decoration. Known for his ascetic preferences, Basil reportedly had little interest in literary pursuits and held contempt for Byzantium's scholarly elite.

Early Life and Rule (960–976)

Basil was born to Romanos II and his second wife Theophano in 958. As a "porphyrogennetos" or "born into the purple," a term for children born to reigning emperors, he was crowned co-emperor by his father in 960. Romanos died unexpectedly in 963 at the age of 24, leading to speculation of poisoning involving Theophano, suggested by chroniclers like Leo the Deacon and John Skylitzes.

Basil and Constantine were too young to govern when Romanos died in 963. As a result, although the Byzantine Senate recognized them as emperors with their mother serving as the nominal regent, real power temporarily shifted to the parakoimomenos, Joseph Bringas. Theophano, however, did not trust Bringas. Another adversary of Bringas was Basil Lekapenos, an illegitimate, eunuch son of Emperor Romanos I and Basil's great-grandfather. Lekapenos had previously served as parakoimomenos to Constantine VII and as megas baioulos to Romanos II. Additionally, the victorious and popular general Nikephoros Phokas opposed Bringas. Fresh from his conquests in Crete and campaigns in Cilicia and Syria, which culminated in sacking Aleppo, Phokas was declared emperor by his troops in July and advanced toward Constantinople. Bringas attempted to amass troops to counter him, but the city's population backed Nikephoros. Bringas fled, relinquishing his position to Lekapenos, and on 16 August 963, Nikephoros Phokas was crowned emperor.

On 20 September, Phokas married Theophano, which led to complications. It was a second marriage for both, and Nikephoros was rumored to be the godfather of one or both of Theophano's sons. Even though Patriarch Polyeuctus disapproved, the Church recognized the marriage's validity, solidifying Nikephoros's legitimacy and guardianship over Basil and Constantine. However, in December 969, he was murdered by Theophano and his nephew John Tzimiskes, who then became Emperor John I and exiled Theophano. John married Theodora, Romanos II’s sister. Basil II took over as senior emperor following John's death on 10 January 976 and promptly reinstated his mother from her convent.

During his sole rule from 976–1025, Basil dealt with rebellions in Anatolia and allied with the Rus'. Renowned as an effective warrior on horseback, he proved to be a capable general and strong leader. Initially, administration fell under Basil Lekapenos, a cunning politician aiming to manipulate the young emperors. The youthful Basil observed patiently without intervening, focusing on learning administrative affairs and military strategies. Unlike his predecessors Nikephoros II and John I, who excelled in military might but faltered administratively, Basil ultimately faced challenges from Bardas Skleros and Bardas Phokas—wealthy military elites in Anatolia who possessed enough resources to rebel.

These generals aspired to attain the imperial role held by Nikephoros II and John I, intending to reduce Basil to a powerless figurehead. Exhibiting a tendency for decisiveness, Basil personally led campaigns against them and suppressed both Skleros (979) and Phokas (989) with assistance from 12,000 Georgians provided by Tornikios and David III Kuropalates of Tao. In 985, between these uprisings, Lekapenos fell from power; accused of conspiracy with the rebels, he was exiled, and his properties were seized.

The dynamics between Skleros and Phokas were intricate. Phokas played a key role in quelling Skleros's rebellion but later rebelled himself. In response, Skleros returned from exile to support Phokas. After Phokas's death in battle, Skleros assumed leadership of the rebellion despite having been previously imprisoned by Phokas. Basil's brother Constantine, uninterested in politics or military affairs, accompanied him in battle—his sole military engagement. The conflict concluded without combat when Skleros was captured by Basil in 989. Although permitted to remain alive, Skleros died blind due either to illness or as retribution for his rebellion.

The rebellions deeply influenced Basil's perspective and approach to ruling. Psellos comments on the conquered Skleros advising Basil, advice which he diligently followed: cut back on power-hungry governors, limit resources for generals in the field, burden them with unfair demands to keep them occupied with internal matters, exclude women from the imperial councils, remain inaccessible to most, and confide in only a few regarding important plans.

To counter these serious uprisings, Basil sought an alliance with Prince Vladimir I of Kiev, who had seized Chersonesos—the Empire's vital base in Crimea—in 988. Vladimir proposed vacating Chersonesos and sending 6,000 soldiers to support Basil in return for marrying Basil's younger sister, Anna. Initially hesitant, Basil was influenced by the Byzantine disdain for Northern Europeans—Franks and Slavs alike—viewing them as barbarians. Anna herself was against marrying a ruler without imperial precedence. However, when Vladimir committed to Christianity by baptizing himself and converting his subjects, Basil finally agreed. Vladimir and Anna's marriage in Crimea in 989 proved significant; the Rus' soldiers became crucial in quelling the rebellion and later formed the backbone of the Varangian Guard. This union eventually paved the way for Moscow to declare itself "The Third Rome," claiming the Byzantine legacy.

Following the suppression of internal disputes, Basil turned to the Empire's external foes. The Byzantine civil wars had compromised their eastern stronghold, and gains made by Nikephoros II and John I were almost lost to the Fatimids. In 987–988, a seven-year truce with the Fatimids was agreed upon, including prisoner exchanges and mutual recognition of protection over their respective religious followers. This truce persisted until the death of long-serving vizier Yaqub ibn Killis in 991, leading Fatimid caliph Al-Aziz Billah to adopt a more aggressive policy in Syria, appointing Manjutakin as the governor of Damascus.

In 992, Manjutakin invaded Aleppo after emir Sa'd al-Dawla's death and initially defeated the Byzantine commander Michael Bourtzes. Still, Aleppo withstood the siege. By early 993, supply shortages forced Manjutakin back to Damascus. He launched another offensive in 994, capturing a significant victory at the Battle of the Orontes. This prompted Basil to intervene directly in the East; he swiftly reached Aleppo with his forces in April 995. The surprise of his arrival and exaggerated reports of his army's might spread unease among the Fatimid troops. Manjutakin withdrew to Damascus without confrontation even though he had a superior force. The Byzantines' attempt to besiege Tripoli failed, but they fortified Tartus with Armenian troops. Al-Aziz prepared for direct confrontation but abandoned these efforts upon his death.

Second Expedition to Syria and Peace Efforts

The conflict between the Byzantines and the Fatimids escalated when the Byzantines backed an uprising in Tyre against Fatimid rule. In 998, under the command of Damian Dalassenos, who had succeeded Bourtzes, the Byzantines launched an attack on Apamea. However, they were defeated by Fatimid general Jaysh ibn al-Samsama on July 19, 998. This setback brought Emperor Basil II back into the fray; he arrived in Syria in October 999, staying for three months. During this period, Basil's forces conducted raids reaching as far as Heliopolis, established a garrison at Larissa, and destroyed three smaller forts near Abu Qubais, Masyaf, and Arca. A siege attempt on Tripoli in December did not succeed, and Emesa remained undisturbed.

Basil's focus shifted due to events in Georgia following the assassination of David III Kuropalates, prompting him to move towards Cilicia in January and send new diplomatic envoys to Cairo. 

In 1000, a peace agreement lasting ten years was established between the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimids. Throughout Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah's reign from 996 to 1021, relations remained largely peaceful as he concentrated more on internal matters. Even when Aleppo acknowledged Fatimid authority in 1004 and Aziz al-Dawla was installed as emir with Fatimid backing, hostilities did not resume. This was due in part to continued tribute payments to the Byzantines and al-Dawla's quick assertion of independence. Nevertheless, tensions arose due to Al-Hakim's persecution of Christians and the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 1009, influencing diplomatic interactions until the late 1030s.

Conquest of Bulgaria

Basil II aimed to reclaim former Byzantine territories and confronted Samuel of Bulgaria, marking one of his most challenging adversaries. Bulgaria had seen partial subjugation under John I following the invasion by Svyatoslav I of Kiev, with remaining areas held by Samuel and his brothers.

To create discord among the Bulgarians, the Byzantine government helped their captive emperor Boris II escape. This strategy failed, so Basil capitalized on a temporary ceasefire with the nobility to lead a large army into Bulgaria and besiege Sredets (now Sofia) in 986. After suffering losses and wary of his governors' loyalty, he ended the siege and retreated towards Thrace but was ambushed and seriously defeated at the Battle of Trajan's Gates. Basil managed to escape thanks to his Varangian Guard and tried sowing division by offering Samuel's brother Aron a marriage alliance with his own sister Anna. However, Aron discovered deceit in Basil's offer, leading Samuel to eliminate Aron by 987. Another brother of Samuel, David, was killed by caravan guards near Prespa and Kastoria in 976.

Despite capturing Roman of Bulgaria in 991, Basil lost Moesia to Bulgarian control.

While Basil dealt with internal strife and focused on strengthening his eastern frontiers, Samuel expanded his influence from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and launched raids deep into Byzantine territory. In 996, Nikephoros Ouranos, a Byzantine general, successfully thwarted one such raid at the Battle of Spercheios in Thessaly; Samuel and his son Gabriel narrowly escaped capture.

By 1000, Basil concentrated fully on conquering Bulgaria with unwavering determination and strategic acumen. His generals Nikephoros Xiphias and Theodorokanos reclaimed Great Preslav as well as Lesser Preslav and Pliska. By 1001, operating from Thessalonica, Basil regained Vodena, Verrhoia, and Servia. In the following year, he positioned his forces in Philippopolis to secure the key military route from the western Haemus Mountains to the Danube, cutting off Samuel's Macedonian base from Paristrion south of the lower Danube. Following this achievement, Basil besieged Vidin successfully after prolonged resistance. In response to this aggressive campaign, Samuel launched a significant raid into Byzantine Thrace, even temporarily capturing Adrianople.

On his way back with a significant amount of loot, Samuel was intercepted near Skopje by a Byzantine force led by Basil. The Byzantines overwhelmed the Bulgarian camp, reclaiming the stolen goods from Adrianople. Shortly after the skirmish, Skopje surrendered, and Basil showed notable kindness towards its governor, Romanos. By 1005, Ashot Taronites, who governed Dyrrhachium, also surrendered to the Byzantines. This defection further isolated Samuel’s territories in the mountainous areas of western Macedonia. With limited options, Samuel shifted to a defensive strategy, fortifying key routes and passes against Byzantine control along the coast and valleys. Despite this, the Byzantine advances slowed down for a few years without notable gains. An attempt by the Bulgarians to counterattack in 1009 failed at the Battle of Kreta, east of Thessalonica. 

In 1014, Basil launched a decisive campaign to eliminate Bulgarian resistance. On July 29, during the Battle of Kleidion, he and his general Nikephoros Xiphias managed to outflank the Bulgarian forces guarding a fortified pass. Samuel avoided capture thanks to his son Gabriel, but Basil inflicted severe punishment on the Bulgarians. Allegedly, he captured 15,000 prisoners, blinding 99 out of every 100 men, leaving one one-eyed man in each group to guide the others back. This brutal act might have been driven by the Byzantine view of the Bulgarians as rebels, for whom blinding was a common punishment. Samuel, devastated by this sight, suffered a stroke and died two days later on October 6, 1014.

Despite Basil's harsh tactics, Bulgaria continued to resist for another four years before surrendering in 1018. This was due to relentless military pressure combined with effective diplomatic efforts to destabilize the Bulgarian leadership. With this success and the subsequent submission of the Serbs, Basil reestablished the Empire's old Danubian frontier after four centuries.

The Croatian rulers Krešimir III and Gojslav, previously allies of Bulgaria, acknowledged Basil's supremacy to avoid sharing Bulgaria's fate. Basil accepted their vassalage warmly and granted them the honorary title of patrikios. Croatia remained a tributary state until Basil's death in 1025. Before returning to Constantinople, Basil celebrated his victory in Athens. Demonstrating strategic acumen, he integrated many Bulgarian leaders into Byzantine society by giving them noble titles and positions of power within the provincial administration and military. Since Bulgaria lacked a monetary economy like Byzantium's, Basil accepted taxes in kind from them. However, his successors overturned this policy, causing significant unrest and rebellion among Bulgarians later in the 11th century.

In a separate campaign involving the Khazars, despite the Kievan Rus' diminishing Khazar power in the 960s, Byzantines struggled to fill the power vacuum around Crimea and other Black Sea regions. In 1016, Byzantine forces allied with Mstislav of Chernigov launched an attack on Crimea, much of which was under the rule of George Tzoul's Khazar successor state centered in Kerch. According to Kedrenos, Tzoul was captured and his kingdom dismantled, allowing Byzantines to take control over southern Crimea.

Campaigns against Georgia  

The Byzantine Empire faced a major threat when Bardas Skleros led a significant rebellion in 976, resulting in the rebels capturing Asia Minor after a series of victories. In response to this crisis, Georgian prince David III of Tao offered assistance to Basil. Following a decisive loyalist victory at the Battle of Pankaleia, David was rewarded with lifetime rule over crucial imperial territories in eastern Asia Minor. However, his decision to oppose Basil during Bardas Phokas' revolt in 987 created tension and distrust from Constantinople towards the Georgian leaders. After this revolt's failure, David was compelled to designate Basil as the heir to his extensive estates. Upon David's death in 1001, Basil inherited the regions of Tao, Phasiane, and Speri. These areas were subsequently organized into the theme of Iberia with Theodosiopolis as the capital. This new arrangement was acknowledged by Bagrat III, the Georgian Bagratid ruler. Nevertheless, Bagrat's son, George I, harbored aspirations to reclaim his predecessor's legacy. As a young and ambitious leader, George initiated a campaign to restore Georgia's holdings and occupied Tao in 1015–1016. Aligning with the Fatimid caliph of Egypt, al-Hakim, he compelled Basil to delay any aggressive response due to simultaneous Byzantine conflicts with Bulgaria. Once Bulgaria was conquered in 1018 and al-Hakim passed away, Basil prepared to confront Georgia by reinforcing Theodosiopolis.

In late 1021, leading a formidable Byzantine army bolstered by the Varangian Guard, Basil launched an attack against the Georgians and their Armenian allies, reclaiming Phasiane and advancing into interior Georgia. King George set Oltisi ablaze to block its capture and moved back to Kola. A fierce battle occurred near Shirimni at Lake Palakazio on September 11, where the emperor achieved a hard-fought victory, prompting George I to retreat further into his territory. Basil then plundered the land and spent the winter in Trebizond.

Efforts to resolve the conflict through negotiations failed. George received aid from the Kakhetians and formed alliances with Byzantine commanders Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos and Nikephoros Xiphias during their unsuccessful rebellion against the emperor. Meanwhile, George's ally, Armenian King Senekerim of Vaspurakan, besieged by Seljuk Turks, ceded his realm to the emperor in December. In early 1022, Basil launched a conclusive offensive, defeating the Georgians at the Battle of Svindax. Facing threats both by land and sea, George agreed to a treaty that ceded Tao, Phasiane, Kola, Artaan, and Javakheti to Basil and left his young son Bagrat as a hostage in Byzantine custody.

Fiscal policies

In 992, Emperor Basil II reached an agreement with Doge Pietro II Orseolo of Venice, reducing Venice's custom duties in Constantinople from 30 nomismata to 17. In exchange, the Venetians committed to transporting Byzantine troops to southern Italy during wartime. It is estimated that a Byzantine landowning farmer could make a profit of 10.2 nomismata after paying dues on half of his best-quality land. Basil earned popularity among country farmers, who provided the bulk of his army's supplies and soldiers. To maintain their support, his laws protected small property owners and reduced their taxes. Despite frequent conflicts, his reign was seen as a relatively prosperous time for these farmers.

Basil took decisive action against the vast estates in Asia Minor—a problem his predecessor Romanos I had attempted to address. In January 996, he issued a decree restricting property ownership rights. Owners who could demonstrate their claims before Romanos's Novels were allowed to keep their lands. However, those who seized estates illegally post-Novels saw their claims nullified, allowing the legal owners to reclaim them. Basil also introduced the allelengyon tax in 1002, mandating wealthy landholders to compensate for the tax arrears of poorer citizens. Although unpopular among the rich, the tax persisted until Emperor Romanos III abolished it in 1028. By 1025, thanks to his careful fiscal management, Basil had accrued 14.4 million nomismata for the Imperial treasury. Nonetheless, following his death, the aristocracy quickly regained control over the government.

Military policies

Basil II was highly regarded by his army because he spent most of his reign campaigning with it, unlike many predecessors who directed operations from Constantinople. This hands-on approach earned him strong support, particularly in political and ecclesiastical matters. Basil embraced a soldier's lifestyle, sharing daily rations with his troops, and he provided care for the children of fallen officers, offering them shelter, food, and education. Many of these children later joined his ranks, with one such individual, Isaac Komnenos, eventually becoming emperor.

Basil did not significantly alter military organization; he introduced smaller regions or strategiai in conquered territories centered around fortress towns, a common strategy in previous reconquests under Phokas and Tzimiskes. He also established large regional commands under leaders such as a doux or katepano in various regions like Iberia, Asprakania, Paristrion, Bulgaria, and Sirmium at different times during his reign. The size of his army is estimated to be about 110,000 men, excluding the imperial tagmata in Constantinople—a formidable force compared to earlier establishments. Nevertheless, under Basil's rule, there was an increasing reliance on allied naval powers like Venice, which contributed to the gradual decline of the Byzantine navy during the 11th century.

Later Life, Death, and Burial

At the time of Basil II's death in 1025, the Byzantine Empire had reached its greatest territorial extent since the Muslim conquests four centuries prior, stretching from southern Italy to the Caucasus and from the Danube to the Levant. Basil had secured the annexation of Armenia's sub-kingdoms, with its capital promised to Byzantium upon King Hovhannes-Smbat's passing. In 1021, he also received the Kingdom of Vaspurakan from King Seneqerim-John in return for lands in Sebasteia, establishing a fortified frontier in those highlands. Byzantine forces also regained significant portions of southern Italy that had been lost over the past century and a half.

Basil planned a military campaign to retake Sicily but passed away on December 15, 1025, concluding the longest reign of any Byzantine or Roman emperor. Originally intended to rest in the rotunda of Constantine I at the Church of the Holy Apostles, he later expressed a wish to be interred at the Church of St. John the Theologian within the Hebdomon Palace complex outside Constantinople. His tomb's epitaph commemorated his numerous military achievements and victories. It read: "From the day that the King of Heaven appointed me as Emperor, I never let my spear rest. I remained vigilant and defended the children of New Rome, campaigning fiercely both in the West and on the Eastern frontiers. O man, behold my tomb here and offer prayers for my campaigns."

In 1260, during an unsuccessful attempt by Nicean Byzantines to reclaim Constantinople from the Latin Empire, a corpse was discovered standing upright with a shepherd's flute in its mouth in a corner of the Church of St. John the Evangelist. An inscription helped identify it as Basil II's remains, which were subsequently moved to the Monastery of the Saviour at Selymbria. The following year, Byzantines successfully regained control of Constantinople.

Legacy Assessment

In the eyes of future generations, Psellos provides an evaluation of Basil II's reign:

Basil II effectively managed rebellions, subdued feudal landowners, and defeated the Empire's enemies, particularly in the Danubian provinces and the East. The influence of Roman military power was respected and feared across regions. The treasury was filled with wealth accumulated from Basil's campaigns. Despite the emperor's known indifference, the pursuit of knowledge endured, albeit faintly. For the general populace in Constantinople, life was likely vibrant and colorful, with little fear of attacks despite some fortifications falling into disrepair.

Basil II's reign is heralded as one of the most influential periods in Byzantine history. His relentless military ventures marked a peak of Byzantine dominance in the Middle Ages. The re-establishment of the Danubian frontier provided a more stable and secure European border, strengthening defenses against Hungarian and Pecheneg incursions. His conquest of Bulgaria and the subjugation of the South Slavs fostered peace in the Empire's Balkan territories, shielding major cities like Constantinople from frequent sieges and plundering. Basil's military acumen, sharpened through revolts by Phokas and Skleros in Anatolia, played a pivotal role in turning the tide against Bulgaria to favor his empire. His formation of the Varangian Guard rendered an elite mercenary force that enhanced battle outcomes and morale, instilling fear in the emperor's adversaries.

The era also witnessed the Macedonian Renaissance, highlighted by a resurgence in classical Greek scholarship, which blended into Christian art and broadened the study of ancient Greek philosophy. This scholarly interest, along with the emperors' expansion projects, significantly enriched the library at the University of Constantinople, reinforcing its status as a leading center of learning at the time. Despite not being a literary figure, Basil was devoted to building churches and monasteries and occasionally invested in urban development.

Literary figures from major Byzantine cities crafted works that juxtaposed their classical heritage with Basil II’s expansionist achievements, likening him to prominent Eastern rulers such as Cyrus the Great and Artaxerxes. Comparisons to Alexander the Great were frequent, with some believing Basil to be his descendant. Classical works like "The Persians" by Aeschylus were popularized amid conflicts with caliphates, which Byzantines referred to classically as "Medes." Despite significant expansion during his rule, Basil’s focus on military prowess over cultural sponsorship garnered criticism, likening him to ancient Spartan rulers remembered for their decisiveness and lack of emphasis on arts or literary culture.

Basil II left no heirs due to a scarcity of eligible relatives within the Macedonian dynasty. Consequently, his brother Constantine and his family succeeded him but proved ineffective rulers. Nonetheless, fifty years of prosperity and intellectual advancement followed, thanks to ample state funds, secure borders, and the Empire's continued status as a formidable political force. By the end of Basil II’s tenure, the Byzantine Empire’s population had grown to around 12 million people.

However, Basil's successes were later undone swiftly. Georgian, Armenian, and Fatimid gains were reversed following a succession crisis and civil war after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Anatolian frontier was left exposed when many governors, alongside their troops, moved to the capital to contest for power after Emperor Romanos IV was captured. Meanwhile, Normans expelled Byzantines from Southern Italy by April of 1071.

George Finlay, a 19th-century historian, noted that Basil saw himself as prudent, just, and devout; however, others perceived him as severe, avaricious, cruel, and intolerant. Although he had little regard for Greek learning, he embodied a superior Byzantine moral character that retained more Roman than Greek traits. Modern historian John JuJulius Norwich also provided insights into Basil's legacy."No lonelier man ever occupied the Byzantine throne. And it is hardly surprising: Basil was ugly, dirty, coarse, boorish, philistine and almost pathologically mean. He was in short deeply un-Byzantine. He cared only for the greatness of his Empire. No wonder that in his hands it reached its apogee"

Bulgarian commentator Alexander Kiossev wrote in Understanding the Balkans: "The hero [of] a nation might be the villain of its neighbour ... The Byzantine emperor Basil the Murderer of Bulgarians, a crucial Greek pantheon figure, is no less important as [a] subject of hatred for our national mythology"

The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church were united as the Chalcedonian Church until the East-West Schism on July 16, 1054. In the Byzantine Empire, regnal numbers were not utilized; instead, rulers with the same name were differentiated using nicknames and patronymics. The historical numbering of Byzantine emperors is an invention of historians, beginning with Edward Gibbon's work, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." During his lifetime, Basil II was often known by surnames such as "the Younger" and "the Purple-born."

Basil's actions, particularly the blinding of Bulgarian prisoners after the Battle of Kleidion, earned him the epithet "the Bulgar Slayer," a term believed to have become popular among the Byzantines by the end of the 12th century as a part of Imperial propaganda. This title was used by historians like Niketas Choniates and writer Nicholas Mesarites, and was later inverted by Bulgarian ruler Kaloyan, who referred to himself as the "Roman-slayer."

The Roman and Byzantine Empires saw multiple rulers named Constantine; however, many are not numbered since they never served as senior or sole emperors. Five emperors named Constantine reigned during the Macedonian era: Constantine, the eldest son and co-ruler of Basil I; Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus; Constantine Lekapenos, a son and co-ruler of Romanos I; Constantine VIII; and Constantine IX Monomachos.

Basil Lekapenos held significant power until 985. Consequently, some historians, such as Antonopoulou, Kotzabassi, Loukaki, and Schulman, date Basil II's independent reign from 985 to 1025. Basil II briefly ruled as senior emperor for five months in 963 after Romanos II's death and before Nikephoros II's coronation, but this period is often excluded from his official reign duration.

Portrayals of Basil II and Constantine VIII are considered reliable. Constantine is depicted with a longer beard, consistent with later coin representations. The Edict on Maximum Prices during Diocletian's rule set the price of Cappadocian carpets at 3000 denarii, about thirty times the cost of a modios of wheat.

Basil's universally accepted death date is noted in various chronicles held by the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Some sources indicate December 12, while others suggest December 13. The 1839 edition of CSHB and its 2010 translation mistakenly omitted translating the complete date.

Basil's family line included his father, grandfather Constantine VII, and great-grandfather Leo VI. All had either no siblings or their siblings were without children. Basil remained unmarried and childless himself, just like his brother Constantine VIII's three daughters—Eudokia, Zoë, and Theodora.